Antioxidant effects of kimchi supplemented with black raspberry during fermentation protect against liver cirrhosis-induced oxidative stress in rats

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: Oxidative stress is a major effector of various diseases; accordingly, antioxidants are frequently ingested in order to prevent or alleviate disease symptoms. Kimchi contains various natural antioxidants, and it is known that the functional activity varies depending on the ingredients and fermentation state. Black raspberries (BR) contain various bioactive compounds with antioxidant effects. This study investigated the antioxidant and liver-protection effects of kimchi supplemented with black raspberry juice powder (BJP). MATERIALS/METHODS: BJP-added kimchi (BAK; at 0.5%, 1%, and 2% concentrations of BJP) and control (without BJP) were prepared and fermented at 4℃ for 4 weeks. Changes in the antioxidant effects of BAK during fermentation were investigated. In addition, the protective activity of BAK against oxidative stress was investigated in a liver cirrhosis-induced animal model in vivo. RESULTS: BAK groups showed the acidity and pH of optimally ripened (OR) kimchi at 2 weeks of fermentation along with the highest lactic acid bacterial counts. Additionally, BAK groups displayed a higher content of phenolic compounds and elevated antioxidant activities relative to the control, with the highest antioxidant effect observed at 2 weeks of fermentation of OR 1% BAK. After feeding the OR 1% BAK to thioacetamide-induced liver cirrhosis rats, we observed decreased glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase and glutamate pyruvate transaminase activities and elevated superoxide dismutase activity. CONCLUSIONS: These findings showed that the antioxidant effects of OR BAK and feeding of OR 1% BAK resulted in liver-protective effects against oxidative stress.

Risk of Metabolic Syndrome according to Intake of White Rice and Kimchi in Korean Adults: based on the 6th Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2013–2015 / 대한지역사회영양학회지

OBJECTIVES: This study was conducted to examine the relationship between white rice and Kimchi intakes and the risk of metabolic syndrome (Mets) in Korean adults. METHODS: Dietary intake and health data of 8289 subjects aged 19 years and over from the 2013–2015 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) were used. Daily total intake of white rice and Kimchi was assessed by 24-hour recall data. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to estimate the risk of Mets according to the daily intake of white rice and Kimchi. RESULTS: The highest intake of white rice and Kimchi was associated with a higher risk of metabolic syndrome (Q1 vs Q5, multivariable adjusted OR=1.45, 95% CI: 1.03–2.03) in women. In addition, a significantly increased risk of elevated blood pressure (multivariable adjusted P for trend 0.0459) was associated with a higher intake of white rice and Kimchi in women. There was no significant trend in the risk of metabolic syndrome according to the intake of white rice and Kimchi in men. CONCLUSIONS: A higher intake of white rice and Kimchi was only associated with an increased risk of metabolic syndrome in women indicating it is necessary to consume more various food groups beside white rice and Kimchi, especially in women.

Risk of Metabolic Syndrome according to Intake of White Rice and Kimchi in Korean Adults: based on the 6th Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2013–2015 / 대한지역사회영양학회지

OBJECTIVES: This study was conducted to examine the relationship between white rice and Kimchi intakes and the risk of metabolic syndrome (Mets) in Korean adults. METHODS: Dietary intake and health data of 8289 subjects aged 19 years and over from the 2013–2015 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) were used. Daily total intake of white rice and Kimchi was assessed by 24-hour recall data. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to estimate the risk of Mets according to the daily intake of white rice and Kimchi. RESULTS: The highest intake of white rice and Kimchi was associated with a higher risk of metabolic syndrome (Q1 vs Q5, multivariable adjusted OR=1.45, 95% CI: 1.03–2.03) in women. In addition, a significantly increased risk of elevated blood pressure (multivariable adjusted P for trend 0.0459) was associated with a higher intake of white rice and Kimchi in women. There was no significant trend in the risk of metabolic syndrome according to the intake of white rice and Kimchi in men. CONCLUSIONS: A higher intake of white rice and Kimchi was only associated with an increased risk of metabolic syndrome in women indicating it is necessary to consume more various food groups beside white rice and Kimchi, especially in women.

In vitro and in vivo inhibition of Helicobacter pylori by Lactobacilllus paracasei HP7 / 한국실험동물학회지

The efficacy of standard therapeutic strategies for Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection is decreasing over time due to the emergence of drug-resistant strains. As an alternative, the present study investigated the capacity of Lactobacilllus paracasei (L. paracasei) HP7, isolated from kimchi, to inhibit H. pylori growth. The effects of L. paracasei HP7 on H. pylori adhesion and H. pylori-induced inflammation were examined in AGS human gastric adenocarcinoma epithelial cells and a mouse model of H. pylori SS1 infection. L. paracasei HP7 reduced H. pylori adhesion to AGS cells and suppressed the inflammatory response in infected cells by downregulating interleukin-8. H. pylori colonization in the stomach of C57BL/6 mice was demonstrated by rapid urease test, and results showed significant decrease in mice post-treated with L. paracasei HP7. Additionally, L. paracasei HP7 decreased gastric inflammation and epithelial lesions in the stomach of H. pylori-infected mice. These results demonstrate that L. paracasei HP7 treatment can inhibit H. pylori growth and is thus a promising treatment for patients with gastric symptoms such as gastritis that are caused by H. pylori infection.

A survey of research papers on the health benefits of kimchi and kimchi lactic acid bacteria / 한국영양학회지

PURPOSE: This review article provides an overview of the trends of research papers on the health benefits of kimchi and kimchi lactic acid bacteria published from 1995 to 2017. METHODS: All publications from 1995 to 2017 regarding kimchi and kimchi lactic acid bacteria were collected, reviewed, and classified. This review article covers the publications of the health benefits of kimchi and kimchi lactic acid bacteria on experimental, clinical trials, and epidemiology studies. RESULTS: The number of publications on kimchi over the period were 590: 385 publications in Korean and 205 publications in English. The number of publications on the health benefits of kimchi and kimchi lactic acid bacteria were 95 in Korean and 54 in English. The number of publications on kimchi and kimchi lactic acid bacteria were 84 and 38, respectively, in the experimental models. Ten research papers on kimchi in clinical trials and 7 publications in epidemiology were found. Kimchi or kimchi lactic acid bacteria had protective effects against oxidative stress, mutagenicity, toxicity, cancer, dyslipidemia, hypertension, immunity, and inflammation in in vitro, cellular, and in vivo animal models. Moreover, kimchi had effects on the serum lipids, intestinal microbiota, iron status, obesity, and metabolic parameters in human clinical trials. In epidemiology, kimchi had effects on hypertension, asthma, atopic dermatitis, rhinitis, cholesterol levels, and free radicals. CONCLUSION: This review focused on the publications regarding the health benefits of kimchi and kimchi lactic acid bacteria, suggesting the future directions of studies about kimchi and kimchi lactic acid bacteria by producing a database for an evaluation of the health benefits of kimchi.

Shifts in Kimchi Consumption between 2005 and 2015 by Region and Income Level in the Korean Population: Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2005, 2015) / 대한지역사회영양학회지

OBJECTIVES: The importance of kimchi as a traditional food in Korean cuisine has gradually decreased due to rapid industrialization, economic growth and changes in dietary patterns in Korea. This study aimed to examine the shifts in kimchi consumption by region and by income level between 2005 and 2015 in Korea. METHODS: Data from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys III (2005) and VI (2015) were used in the study (n=15,558). Intake of kimchi was estimated using a single 24-hour dietary recall. The sample weights were applied in all analyses to reflect population estimates. All statistical analyses were carried out by using SPSS IBM Statistics 20. RESULTS: Kimchi intake has significantly decreased by 27.6 g/day per capita during the last decade in Korea; 25.0 g for males and 29.9 g for females, respectively. Over the past decade, the decline of kimchi intake has been particularly significant in Seoul, Busan, Incheon, Gyeonggi, and Gwangju, while there has been no significant change in males living in rural areas. The consumption of kimchi across all income levels has decreased, however, the decrease was higher in ‘middle and low income level’. The amount of kimchi consumption in 2015 was the highest in ‘low income level’. The results were similar after adjusting for gender and age. CONCLUSIONS: For the past decade, the overall intake of kimchi in Korea has decreased, however, it has been found that the decrease of kimchi intake for males living in the rural areas was not significant. Therefore, in order to keep our traditional kimchi culture and promote a balanced diet including kimchi for Korean, it is necessary to develop more efficient policies and approaches. A variety of dishes using kimchi should be developed, besides merely serving kimchi with rice as a side dish, to increase the consumption of kimchi.

Risk of Metabolic Syndrome according to Intakes of Vegetables and Kimchi in Korean Adults: Using the 5th Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2010–2011 / 대한지역사회영양학회지

OBJECTIVES: The objective of this study was to examine the relations between total vegetable and Kimchi intakes and the risk of metabolic syndrome (Mets) in Korean adults. METHODS: This study used dietary intake and health data of 6668 subjects aged 20 years and over from the 2010–2011 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES). Daily intakes of total vegetables and Kimchi were assessed by 24-hour recall data. The odds ratio of Mets risk according to daily intake of vegetables and Kimchi was analyzed, respectively. RESULTS: The highest consumption of total vegetables was associated with a lower risk of abdominal obesity (multivariable adjusted OR=0.56, 95% CI: 0.33, 0.93) in men and lower risk of Mets (multivariable adjusted OR=0.67, 95% CI: 0.47, 0.94) in women. Kimchi consumption was not related to the risk of Mets in both men and in women. However, a higher intake of Kimchi was associated with an increased risk of elevated blood pressure (Q1 vs Q5, multivariable adjusted OR=1.34, 95% CI: 0.95, 1.90, P for trend= 0.0261) in women. CONCLUSIONS: A higher intake of vegetables was associated with decreased risk of abdominal obesity and Mets in both men and women, respectively. A higher consumption of Kimchi was not related to the risk of Mets in both in men and in women. However, a higher intake of Kimchi was associated with an increased risk of elevated blood pressure in women.

Analysis of Kimchi, vegetable and fruit consumption trends among Korean adults: data from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (1998-2012)

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study is to analyze daily kimchi, vegetable and fruit consumption by general characteristics and vegetable and fruit consumption from 1998 to 2012 by the Korean population based on the data of the KNHANES (Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey). SUBJECTS/METHODS: This study is based on the 1998-2012 KNHNES. Analysis data on 54,700 subjects aged 19 years and older were obtained from health behavior interviews and the 24-hour dietary recall method. RESULTS: Daily kimchi consumption and portion size of kimchi decreased significantly from 1998 to 2012 (adjusted P for trend < 0.0001). Meanwhile, daily consumption of both non-salted vegetable and fruit with and without kimchi did not significantly change between 1998 and 2012. Reduced consumption of kimchi, non-salted vegetable, and fruit was observed for both genders as well as daily meal episodes and cooking locations. Male and female subjects with insufficient non-salted vegetable and fruit intake were increased 1.4 times and 1.3 times, respectively, in 2012 than 1998. All subjects consumed at least 400 g/day of non-salted vegetable, fruit, and kimchi in each survey year, although they consumed insufficient amounts (< 400 g/day) of non-salted vegetable and fruit without kimchi. CONCLUSIONS: Since Koreans generally consume high amounts of fermented vegetables, including kimchi, total vegetables and fruit. Consumption of these foods by the Korean adult population reached 400 g, which is the recommended intake of the WCRF/AICR. Based on this result, it is necessary to promote consumption of kimchi in the Korean population and research the development of low sodium kimchi in the future.

Relationship between Kimchi and Metabolic Syndrome in Korean Adults: Data from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys (KNHANES) 2007~2012

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between Kimchi intake and the prevalence of metabolic syndrome in Korean adults (over 19 years old), using data from the Korean National Health & Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES), 2007~2012. A total of 30,630 participants were analyzed in this study. Metabolic syndrome was diagnosed using the NCEP ATP III criteria standards. Out of the 30,630 participants, 8,230 (23.45%) had meatabolic syndrome. When the subjects were grouped by their Kimchi intake, those who consumed a sufficient amount (36.0~82.125 g) showed a lower prevalence of metabolic syndrome (P<0.001). However, multiple logistic regression analysis results after adjusting for sex and age, exercise status, smoking status, drinking status, energy intake, income level, occupation, area, frequency of eating-out, showed that the Kimchi intake did not significantly affect the odds ratio of metabolic syndrome. High sodium contents of Kimchi was the major cause of various cardiovascular diseases, and was associated with the hypertension risk factors of the metabolic syndrome. However, in this study, the Kimchi intake, even after adjusting sodium intake, did not have negative influence on the development of metabolic syndrome.

Nutrient intakes and frequently consumed foods among Korean adults according to the intake frequency of Baechu (Chinese cabbage) kimchi: Based on the 2012~2013 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey / 한국영양학회지

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study is to analyze nutrient intake and frequently consumed foods according to the intake frequency of Baechu (Chinese cabbage) kimchi by Korean adults. METHODS: Data from analysis of 7,122 subjects aged 19~64 years from 2012, 2013 KNHANES were obtained from health behavior interviews and the 24-hour dietary recall method. RESULTS: With the daily intake frequency of Baechu kimchi, subjects with two times a day were the highest proportion among total subjects. As Baechu kimchi intake frequency of breakfast, lunch, and dinner increased, the rate of skipping meals decreased significantly (p < 0.05). In addition, all food intake and daily nutrient intake increased significantly with increasing frequency of daily Baechu kimchi intake (Crude p for trend < 0.05, Adjusted p for trend < 0.05). With the frequently consumed foods by daily Baechu kimchi intake frequency in 2012 and 2013, among 509 foods top ranked foods were white rice, Baechu kimchi, beer, distilled alcoholic drink, milk, and pork. CONCLUSION: The results of this study could be used in the future to promote consumption of kimchi in the Korean population.

Vegetable and fruit intake in one person household: The Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2010~2012) / 한국영양학회지

PURPOSE: The aim of the current study was to compare the vegetable and fruit intake between one person households and those living with family. METHODS: The 24-hour recall data of 14,914 persons over 20 years old who participated in the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) from 2010 to 2012 were used for the final analysis. Consumption of non-salted vegetables and fruits (> or = 400 g/day), fruits (> or = 200 g/day), and kimchi (> or = 120 g/day) was compared between one person households and those living with family. Logistic regression models were used to assess the associations between potential determinants and adequate vegetable and fruit intake. RESULTS: After additional adjustments for age, household income, and total energy intake, no statistically significant differences in likelihood of low intake of non-salted vegetable and fruit and kimchi were observed between one person households and those living with family. (Non-salted vegetables and fruits: odds ratio (OR) = 1.15, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.79-1.68 for the men; OR = 1.25, 95% CI = 0.98-1.59 for women). However one person households have greater likelihood of low intake of kimchi than those living with family in women (OR = 1.72, 95% CI = 1.31-2.26). CONCLUSION: Although there were no differences in likelihood of low intake of non-salted vegetables and between individuals living alone and those living with family, women of one person households were great likelihood of low intake of kimchi compared to those living with family.

Immunomodulatory Effects of Kimchi in Chinese Healthy College Students: A Randomized Controlled Trial

This study examined the potential immunomodulatory effects of Kimchi, a traditional fermented Korean vegetable, in healthy Chinese college students. The four-week clinical-trial (randomized, open-label, prospective, controlled) was followed by a one week wash-out period. Healthy Chinese college students (over 20 years of age with a body mass index of 18.5-23.0 kg/m2) volunteered for this study. Forty-three students were randomly classified into two groups, Kimchi (n = 21, supplemented with 100 g of Kimchi per day) or non-Kimchi (n = 22, supplemented with 100 g of radish per day, control) groups. During the four-week intervention period, students were asked to maintain their usual diet and activity, and instructed not to take any medications, functional food products, or dietary supplements. Anthropometrics, nutritional intake, and blood immune parameters (lymphocyte subsets, cytokines, and immunoglobulins) were measured before and after the four weeks of intervention. Thirty-nine students (19 in the Kimchi group, 20 in the non-Kimchi group) finished the study. After the intervention, no significant changes were observed in lymphocyte subsets (T-cell, B-cell, NK cell), pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, TNF-alpha), anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-4 and IL-10), and immunoglobulins (Ig A, G, and M) between groups in either the Kimchi or non-Kimchi. These results suggest that the short-term consumption of Kimchi has no immunomodulatory effects in healthy Chinese college students.

Antioxidative effects of Kimchi under different fermentation stage on radical-induced oxidative stress

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: Kimchi is a traditional Korean fermented vegetable containing several ingredients. We investigated the protective activity of methanol extract of kimchi under different fermentation stages against oxidative damage. MATERIALS/METHODS: Fresh kimchi (Fresh), optimally ripened kimchi (OptR), and over ripened kimchi (OvR) were fermented until the pH reached pH 5.6, pH 4.3, and pH 3.8, respectively. The radical scavenging activity and protective activity from oxidative stress of kimchi during fermentation were investigated under in vitro and cellular systems using LLC-PK1 cells. RESULTS: Kimchi exhibited strong radical scavenging activities against 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl, nitric oxide, superoxide anion, and hydroxyl radical. In addition, the free radical generators led to loss of cell viability and elevated lipid peroxidation, while treatment with kimchi resulted in significantly increased cell viability and decreased lipid peroxidation. Furthermore, the protective effect against oxidative stress was related to regulation of cyclooxygenase-2, inducible nitric oxide synthase, nuclear factor-kappaB p65, and IkappaB expression. In particular, OvR showed the strongest protective effect from cellular oxidative stress among other kimchi. CONCLUSION: The current study indicated that kimchi, particularly OptR and OvR, played a protective role against free radical-induced oxidative stress. These findings suggest that kimchi is a promising functional food with an antioxidative effect and fermentation of kimchi led to elevation of antioxidative activity.

Characteristics and immuno-modulatory effects of Enterococcus faecium JS1-8 isolated from Kimchi / 동물의과학연구지

Characteristics and immuno-modulatory effects of Enterococcus (E.) faecium JS1-8 isolated from Kimchi were investigated for potential probiotic use. We measured their acid, bile, and heat tolerances, adhesion properties in Caco-2 cells, antimicrobial activity against pathogenic bacteria, and bacteriocin-like substance-producing activity. Immuno-modulatory effects of E. faecium JS1-8 were measured by determination of nitric oxide (NO), nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB), interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) production in RAW 264.7 cells or RAW BLUE cells. JS1-8 survived at pH 2.0 for 2 hr and showed tolerance to 0.3% oxgall bile salt, and it survived after exposure for 5 min at 80degreesC. JS1-8 showed high antimicrobial inhibition zones to Staphylococcus aureus (460 mm), Listeria monocytogenes (310 mm), Salmonella enteritidis (280 mm), and E. coli (150 mm). Bacteriocin-like substance produced by JS1-8 showed a broad spectrum of activity against Listeria monocytogenes KCCM 40307 and Lactobacillus sake KCCM 40264. Low concentration (1 x 107 CFU/mL) of heat-killed E. faecium JS1-8 induced statistically higher production of NO than Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG (LGG), which is a well-known immuno-modulatory lactic acid bacteria. Low and high (5 x 107 CFU/mL) concentrations of JS1-8 induced statistically higher production of NF-kappaB than that produced by LGG. We also found that JS1-8 increased production of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1beta and TNF-alpha in a concentration-dependent manner. As a result, E. faecium JSI-8 could be used as a useful probiotic for controlling pathogens and enhancing host immune responses.

Characteristics and immuno-modulatory effects of Weissella cibaria JW15 isolated from Kimchi, Korea traditional fermented food, for probiotic use / 동물의과학연구지

In this study, characteristics and immuno-modulatory effects of Weissella cibaria JW15 isolated from Kimchi, traditional Korean fermented food, were examined for investigation of the capacity of potentially probiotic strains. We measured acid, bile, and heat tolerance, adhesive properties to intestinal epithelial cells, and inhibitory activity against pathogens. JW15 could survive at pH 3.0 for 2 hr, but not at pH 2.0. JW15 also showed tolerance to 0.3% oxgall bile salt, and heat tolerance at 70degrees C and 80degrees C for 5 min, respectively. Adhesive ability to Caco-2 cells was similar to that of Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG (LGG), a well-known commercial probiotic. JW15 exhibited antimicrobial activities to pathogenic bacteria such as Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, and Salmonella enteritidis. The immuno-modulatory effects of JW15 were compared with those of LGG, a well-known immune enhancer. For analysis, production of nitric oxide (NO), NF-kappaB (Nuclear factor kappaB), Interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) was measured. The concentration of NO induced by JW15 was higher than that by LGG at low concentration (1 x 10(7) cfu/mL). Low and high (5 x 10(7) CFU/mL) concentration of JW15 induced statistically higher production of NF-kappaB, IL-1beta, and TNF-alpha than that produced by LGG, respectively. In conclusion, Weissella cibaria JW15 had ability as a probiotic strain, including acid, bile, and heat tolerance, adhesive properties to intestinal epithelial cells, and inhibitory activity against pathogens. In addition, JW15 showed better immuno-modulatory effects than LGG when NO, NF-kappaB, IL-1beta, and TNF-alpha were measured. According to these results, the characteristics and immunomodulating activity of Weissella cibaria JW15 are suitable for consideration as a potential probiotic.

Effects of Kimchi Extract and Temperature on Embryostasis of Ascaris suum Eggs

To determine the effects of kimchi extracts at different temperatures on larval development, Ascaris suum eggs were mixed with soluble part of 7 different brands of commercially available kimchi and preserved at either 5degrees C or 25degrees C for up to 60 days. A. suum eggs incubated at 25degrees C showed marked differences in larval development between kimchi extract and control group. While all eggs in the control group completed embryonation by day 21, only 30% of the eggs in the kimchi extract group became embryonated by day 36 and about 25% never became larvated even at day 60. At 5degrees C, however, none of the eggs showed larval development regardless of the incubation period or type of mixture group. To determine the survival rate of A. suum eggs that showed no embryonation after being preserved at 5degrees C, eggs preserved in kimchi extracts for 14, 28, and 60 at 5degrees C were re-incubated at 25degrees C for 3 weeks in distilled water. While all eggs in the control group became larvated, eggs in the kimchi extract group showed differences in their embryonation rates by the incubation period; 87.4 % and 41.7% of the eggs became embryonated after being refrigerated for 14 days and 28 days, respectively. When refrigerated for 60 days, however, no eggs mixed in kimchi extract showed larval development. Our results indicate that embryogenesis of A. suum eggs in kimchi extract was affected by duration of refrigeration, and that all eggs stopped larval development completely in kimchi kept at 5degrees C for up to 60 days.

Effects of kimchi supplementation on blood pressure and cardiac hypertrophy with varying sodium content in spontaneously hypertensive rats

We tested the effects of dietary intake of freeze-dried Korean traditional fermented cabbage (generally known as kimchi) with varying amounts of sodium on blood pressure and cardiac hypertrophy in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRs). Wistar-Kyoto rats (WKY), as a control group, received a regular AIN-76 diet, and the SHRs were divided into four groups. The SHR group was fed a regular diet without kimchi supplementation, the SHR-L group was fed the regular diet supplemented with low sodium kimchi containing 1.4% salt by wet weight, which was provided in a freeze-dried form, the SHR-M group was supplemented with medium levels of sodium kimchi containing 2.4% salt, and the SHR-H group was supplemented with high sodium kimchi containing 3.0% salt. Blood pressure was measured over 6 weeks, and cardiac hypertrophy was examined by measuring heart and left ventricle weights and cardiac histology. SHRs showed higher blood pressure compared to that in WKY rats, which was further elevated by consuming high sodium containing kimchi but was not influenced by supplementing with low sodium kimchi. None of the SHR groups showed significant differences in cardiac and left ventricular mass or cardiomyocyte size. Levels of serum biochemical parameters, including blood urea nitrogen, creatinine, glutamic-oxaloacetic transaminase, glutamic-pyruvic transaminase, sodium, and potassium were not different among the groups. Elevations in serum levels of aldosterone in SHR rats decreased in the low sodium kimchi group. These results suggest that consuming low sodium kimchi may not adversely affect blood pressure and cardiac function even under a hypertensive condition.

A Comparative Study of Salinity in Packaged Kimchi, Bulk Kimchi and Common Foods in Korea

To determine the salinity of packaged Kimchi, bulk Kimchi and other common foods, we collected samples of foods from the Gyeonggi province area in October 2006 and determined the salinity levels in one serving portion. The average salinity of all foods was 0.226+/-0.212%. The average salinity of all Kimchi samples was 0.401+/-0.260%. The average salinities of soups, stews, protein containing side dishes, vegetable side dishes and drinks were 0.153+/-0.085%, 0.691+/-0.213%, 0.157+/-0.102%, 0.209+/-0.127% and 0.080+/-0.076%, respectively. The average salt intake of one serving of Kimchi was 0.125+/-0.041 g, while the average salt intakes of one serving of the soups, stews, protein containing side dishes, vegetable side dishes and drinks were 0.306+/-0.170 g, 1.382+/-0.426 g, 0.094+/-0.061 g, 0.146+/-0.089 g, and 0.159+/-0.152 g, respectively. The salinity of packaged Kimchi was significantly higher than the salinity of the bulk Kimchi (p<0.01). In addition, the salinity of the liquid and solid stem portions of the packaged Kimchi was significantly higher than the salinity of the same sized portions of the bulk Kimchi (p<0.01). Furthermore, the salinity in the liquid and solid stem portions of the packaged mustard leaf Kimchi were significantly higher than the salinities of other types of Kimchi (p<0.0001). The salinity of all Kimchi is higher than that of soup, protein containing side dishes, vegetable side dishes or drinks, but the salt content of one serving of Kimchi is lower than those of the soups or stews or vegetable side dishes or drinks (because one serving size of Kimchi is usually smaller than that of the other foods).

A Comparative Study of Salinity in Packaged Kimchi, Bulk Kimchi and Common Foods in Korea

To determine the salinity of packaged Kimchi, bulk Kimchi and other common foods, we collected samples of foods from the Gyeonggi province area in October 2006 and determined the salinity levels in one serving portion. The average salinity of all foods was 0.226+/-0.212%. The average salinity of all Kimchi samples was 0.401+/-0.260%. The average salinities of soups, stews, protein containing side dishes, vegetable side dishes and drinks were 0.153+/-0.085%, 0.691+/-0.213%, 0.157+/-0.102%, 0.209+/-0.127% and 0.080+/-0.076%, respectively. The average salt intake of one serving of Kimchi was 0.125+/-0.041 g, while the average salt intakes of one serving of the soups, stews, protein containing side dishes, vegetable side dishes and drinks were 0.306+/-0.170 g, 1.382+/-0.426 g, 0.094+/-0.061 g, 0.146+/-0.089 g, and 0.159+/-0.152 g, respectively. The salinity of packaged Kimchi was significantly higher than the salinity of the bulk Kimchi (p<0.01). In addition, the salinity of the liquid and solid stem portions of the packaged Kimchi was significantly higher than the salinity of the same sized portions of the bulk Kimchi (p<0.01). Furthermore, the salinity in the liquid and solid stem portions of the packaged mustard leaf Kimchi were significantly higher than the salinities of other types of Kimchi (p<0.0001). The salinity of all Kimchi is higher than that of soup, protein containing side dishes, vegetable side dishes or drinks, but the salt content of one serving of Kimchi is lower than those of the soups or stews or vegetable side dishes or drinks (because one serving size of Kimchi is usually smaller than that of the other foods).

Intake Patterns and Preference for Kimchi Among Middle School Students in Masan

The aim of this study was to examine intake patterns and preferences for Kimchi in middle school students. The subjects included 361 male and 325 female students in Masan City. For the frequency of Kimchi intake, the largest group consisted of students who ate Kimchi at every meal, with 51.6%, and the majority of them had seven or more pieces of Kimchi per meal. In addition, 50.4% viewed Kimchi as an indispensable dish; and of those who consumed Kimchi at every meal, two kinds of Kimchi would be served. Ggodeulppaegi- Kimchi and Yangbachu-Kimchi were the least preferred types, while Baechu-Kimchi was most preferred, followed by Kakduki and Dongchimi. Furthermore, ripe Kimchi was considered more preferred by 44.9% of the students, and the males had greater preferences for fresh Kimchi (36.0%) as compared to the females (26.8%). Regarding their favorite portion of the Kimchi, students who ate Kimchi at every meal were fond of every part; while 36.6% of the males preferred the top portion and 42.5% of the females preferred the whole portion of Kimchi. The degree of ripeness (39.9%) was selected as the most crucial factor in determining taste, and 49.1% of the subjects preferred a spicy taste. The students who ate Kimchi at every meal liked properly seasoned Kimchi (56.6%), of which 79.4% preferred spicy Kimchi; although they did not like excessively hot Kimchi products. Finally, 37.5% of the subjects identified salted shrimp as their favorite fish sauce.